1731
God(s) in Congress: A Two-Step Analysis
Addressing the Constitutionality of Guest-
Chaplain Invocations, and a Call for
Aggressive Enforcement of the
Establishment Clause
George R. Kennedy
ABSTRACT: Thirty years ago the Supreme Court interpreted the
Establishment Clause to allow invocations by religious leaders in
government meetings. Since then the Supreme Court has not readdressed the
issue, but the circuit courts have struggled to coherently apply the Court’s
instructions. This Note argues that the Supreme Court should readdress
legislative prayer to state more clearly what qualifies as a constitutional
invocation. The Court’s standard should focus on the language of
individual prayers and the procedures used to decide who may lead an
invocation. This Note also argues that a recent circuit court of appeals case
raises the possibility of bringing a § 1983 claim directly against the
individual providing an opening invocation and calls for use of § 1983
and Ex parte Young to enforce the Establishment Clause.
I. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 1733
II. THE ESTABLISHMENT CLAUSE AND LEGISLATIVE PRAYER .................... 1735
A. THE NEUTRALITY PRINCIPLE: LEMON V. KURTZMAN ...................... 1735
B. ABANDONING NEUTRALITY: MARSH V. CHAMBERS ......................... 1737
C. EARLY APPLICATION OF MARSH V. CHAMBERS: COUNTY OF
ALLEGHENY V. ACLU, GREATER PITTSBURGH CHAPTER ............. 1739
D. WRITTEN IN STONE: THE TEN COMMANDMENTS AND GOVERNMENT
MONUMENTS ................................................................................. 1740
III. DISAGREEMENT AND CONFUSION AMONG THE CIRCUITS .................... 1742
J.D. Candidate, The University of Iowa College of Law, 2013; B.A., Carleton College,
2010. I would like to thank the editors and student writers of Volumes 97 and 98 of the Iowa
Law Review for their work on this Note. I would also like to thank my family and friends for their
support throughout law school.
1732 IOWA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 98:1731
A. THE ELEVENTH CIRCUIT APPROACH: PELPHREY V. COBB COUNTY . 1742
B. THE FOURTH CIRCUIT APPROACH ................................................... 1744
1. Wynne v. Town of Great Falls .................................................. 1744
2. Simpson v. Chesterfield County Board of Supervisors ................ 1745
3. Joyner v. Forsyth County .......................................................... 1745
IV. THE SUPREME COURT SHOULD GRANT CERTIORARI AND ADOPT A
STANDARD USING PELPHREY AND JOYNER ............................................. 1747
A. CERTIORARI ................................................................................... 1747
B. THE COURT’S STANDARD SHOULD DRAW ON PELPHREY AND
JOYNER ......................................................................................... 1749
1. Procedural Problems ........................................................... 1749
2. Substantive Violations .......................................................... 1750
V. ENFORCEMENT OF THE ESTABLISHMENT CLAUSE IN GUEST-
CHAPLAIN CASES .................................................................................. 1752
A. SECTION 1983 ............................................................................... 1752
1. Official-Capacity Suits .......................................................... 1753
2. Individual-Capacity Suits ...................................................... 1754
B. EX PARTE YOUNG .......................................................................... 1756
VI. CONCLUSION: APPLICATION OF THE PROPOSED STANDARD TO THE
DEAN INVOCATION BEFORE THE MINNESOTA HOUSE OF
REPRESENTATIVES ................................................................................ 1758
A. FACTS ............................................................................................ 1758
B. ANALYSIS ....................................................................................... 1759
C. CONCLUSION .................................................................................. 1761
