RAPE AND SEXUAL ASSAULT
EDITED BY ISABELLA PAYNE, SEAN A. WORLEY, SAVANNAH JELKS,
SELA CARRINGTON, PAYTON SMALL GANNON, HELEN ROGERS,
CATHERINE CUNNINGHAM, KYLIE SWINMURN, & TARA TROIANO
I. INTRODUCTION .. ........................................ 860
A. DEFINITION OF SEXUAL ASSAULT AND RAPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860
B. STATISTICS ........................................ 866
II. CRIMINAL LAW ......................................... 868
A. PRE-TRIAL ISSUES ................................... 868
1. DNA Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868
a. Availability of DNA Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870
b. Rape Kit Backlog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870
c. Statutes of Limitations in the DNA Era . . . . . . . . . . . 872
2. Sexual Assault Cases in the Media .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 874
a. Media Treatment of Survivors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875
b. Media Treatment of the Accused . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 877
c. Non-Disclosure Agreements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 879
3. Special Groups .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880
a. Marital Rape .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880
b. Military Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880
c. Indigenous Americans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883
d. Campus Sexual Violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885
i. Government Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 886
ii. Campus Response and Reform . . . . . . . . . . . . . 889
iii. The Legal System’s Response .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 892
iv. Affirmative Consent Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 894
B. T RIAL ISSUES ...................................... 896
1. Rape Shield Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 897
a. The Federal Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900
b. Legislated Exceptions Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904
i. Pattern of Behavior and/or Prostitution . . . . . . . 905
ii. Prior False Accusations of Sexual Assault . . . . 906
iii. Prior Accusations of Sexual Abuse Related to
Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907
c. The Judicial Discretion Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 908
d. The Hybrid Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909
e. The Evidentiary Purpose Approach .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 910
2. Defendant’s Past Sex Crimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911
3. Sexually Transmitted Infection Status .................. 913
4. Survivor’s Medical Records .......................... 914
859
5. Social Media Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918
III. CIVIL LAWSUITS & REMEDIES ............................... 921
A. CHILD CUSTODY IN RAPE CASES ......................... 922
B. CIVIL PROTECTION ORDERS .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 926
C. CIVIL CAUSES OF ACTION .............................. 928
IV. CONCLUSION ............ ............................... 930
I. INTRODUCTION
Since the 1970s, rape law has been reshaped and expanded in large part due to an
increased awareness of the prevalence of sexual violence. In the last decade, the
#MeToo movement,
1
See, e.g. Nadia Khomami, #MeToo: How a Hashtag Became a Rallying Cry Against Sexual
Harassment, GUARDIAN (Oct. 20, 2017), https://perma.cc/XC9C-PRD5.
the Senate’s stalling of the 2019 Violence Against Women
Reauthorization Act,
2
See H.R. 1585, 116th Cong. (2019) (placed on the Senate Calendar on Apr. 10, 2019); see also
Arianna Skibell, ‘It’s a real loss for survivors’: Domestic violence law stalled in U.S. Senate, WIS.
EXAMINER (Jan. 24, 2020), https://perma.cc/57RS-43WP.
former USA Gymnastics Doctor Larry Nassar’s prison sentence
of up to 175 years for sexual abuse,
3
See Will Hobson, Larry Nassar, Former USA Gymnastics Doctor, Sentenced to 40-175 Years for
Sex Crimes, WASH. POST (Jan. 24, 2018), https://perma.cc/K4RY-U8GV.
the uncovering of high rates of sexual assault on
college campuses,
4
See Richard Pe
´rez-Pen˜a, 1 in 4 Women Experience Sex Assault on Campus, N.Y. TIMES (Sept. 21,
2015), https://perma.cc/3CPX-SKDB.
and the confirmation of Supreme Court Justice Brett Kavanaugh
despite allegations of sexual assault
5
See Clare Foran & Stephen Collinson, Brett Kavanaugh Sworn in as Supreme Court Justice, CNN
(Oct. 6, 2018), https://perma.cc/5X5V-A83Y.
have contributed to increased public awareness of
sexual assault. Despite certain legislative reforms, lawmakers and courts continue to
struggle with sensitive issues in the prosecution of rape cases and protecting survivors.
In Part I, this Article will present statistics on the frequency of sexual assault. It
will address some of the typical characteristics of perpetrators, as well as statutory
definitions and interpretations of rape at both the federal and state levels. Part II.A
will examine the criminal prosecution of rape through pre-trial issues, including
DNA testing, maintaining rape survivor privacy in the media, and issues faced by
selected groups including spousal rape survivors, military rape survivors, Indigenous
American survivors, and students on college campuses. Part II.B will focus on trial
issues in criminal cases, particularly the admissibility of evidence, rape shield laws,
and the admissibility of defendants’ past sex crimes. Part III will examine how civil
laws have developed to provide rape survivors with more protections.
A. DEFINITION OF SEXUAL ASSAULT AND RAPE
6
The common law crime of rape is subsumed under federal law as the crime of
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6. Statutes, news articles, and even academic writings use the terms “sexual assault” and “rape”
interchangeably. Although there is a difference between the two terms, they are often conflated. See
860 THE GEORGETOWN JOURNAL OF GENDER AND THE LAW [Vol. 26:859
Rape & Sexual Assault, CENTRE CTY. WOMEN’S RESOURCE CTR. (2013), https://perma.cc/E8VH-Q53J;
see Sexual Assault, RAPE, ABUSE & INCEST NAT’L NETWORK [hereinafter “RAINN”], https://perma.cc/
BUF9-MMA2.
aggravated sexual abuse.
7
Federal law concerning rape, like many laws at the
state level, is gender-neutral and does not distinguish between vaginal and other
forms of penetration.
8
An individual is guilty of this offense if they “knowingly
7. 18 U.S.C.A. § 2241 (West, Westlaw through Pub. L. 118-106).
8. Id. There are also many states (and D.C.) with gender-neutral statutes regarding rape and sexual
assault that do not differentiate between different types of penetration or mention gender. See ALASKA
STAT. ANN. § 11.41.410 (West, Westlaw through ch. 61, Exec. Orders 125, 133 to 135 of the 2024 2nd
Reg. Sess. of the 33rd Leg.)); ARIZ. REV. STAT. ANN. § 13-1406 (West, Westlaw through legis. of the 2d
Reg. Sess. of the 56th Leg. (2024)); CAL. PENAL CODE. § 261 (West, Westlaw through Ch. 1002 of 2024
Reg. Sess.); COLO. REV. STAT. ANN. § 18-3-402 (West, Westlaw through legis. effective Aug. 7, 2024,
of the 2d Reg. Sess. of the 74th Gen. Assemb. (2024)); CONN. GEN. STAT. ANN. § 53a-70 (West,
Westlaw through all enactments of the 2024 Reg. Sess. enrolled and approved by the Governor on or
before July 1, 2024, and effective on or before July 1, 2024); DEL. CODE. ANN. tit. 11, § 773 (West,
Westlaw through ch. 464 of the 152nd Gen. Assemb. (2023-2024); D.C. CODE. ANN. § 22-3002 (West,
Westlaw through Jul. 14, 2024); FLA. STAT. ANN. § 794.011 (West, Westlaw through July 1, 2024, from
the 2024 1st Reg. Sess.); HAW. REV. STAT. ANN. § 707-730 (West, Westlaw through the2024 Reg. and
1st Spec. Sess.); IDAHO CODE ANN. § 18-6101 (West, Westlaw current through legislation effective from
the 2d Reg. Sess. of the 67th Idaho Leg. (2024)); IL. ST. CH. 720 § 5/11-1.20 (West, Westlaw through
P. A. 103-871 of the 2024 Reg. Sess.); IND. CODE. ANN. 35-42-4-1 (West, Westlaw through all legis. of
the 2024 2d Reg. Sess. of the 123rd Gen. Assemb.)); IOWA CODE ANN. § 709.1 (West, through legis.
effective July 1, 2024, from the 2024 Reg. Sess., subject to changes made by Iowa Code Editor for Code
2025); KAN. STAT. ANN. § 21-5503 (West, Westlaw through laws enacted during the 2024 Reg. and 1st
Spec. Sess. of the Kan. Leg.); KY. REV. STAT. ANN. § 510.010 et. seq. (West, Westlaw through the 2024
Reg. Sess. and Nov. 7, 2023 election); LA. STAT. ANN. § 14:41 (West, current through the 2024 1st,2nd
Extra. Sess. and Reg. Sess.); ME. REV. STAT. ANN. tit.17-A, § 253 (West, Westlaw through the 2023 2d
Reg. Sess. of the 131st Leg.); MASS. GEN. LAWS ANN. ch. 265, § 22 (West, Westlaw through Ch. 129 of
the 2024 2d Ann. Sess.); MINN. STAT. ANN. § 609.342 (West, Westlaw through all legis. from the 2024
Reg. Sess.); MONT. CODE ANN. § 45-5-503 (West, Westlaw through 2023 Sess. of the Mont. Leg.));
NEB. REV. STAT. ANN. § 28-319 (West, Westlaw through the 2d Reg. Sess. of the 108th Leg. and the end
of the 1st Spec. Sess. of the 108th Leg.(2024)); N.H. REV. STAT. ANN. § 632-A:1 et. seq. (West,
Westlaw through Ch. 378 of the 2024 Reg. Sess.); N.J. STAT. ANN. § 2C:14-2 (West, Westlaw through
L.2024, c. 62 and J.R. No. 1.); N.M. STAT. ANN. § 30-9-11 (West, Westlaw through chs. effective July 1,
2024 of the 2024 2d Reg. Sess. of the 56th Leg. (2023)); N.D. CENT. CODE ANN. § 12.1-20-03 (West,
Westlaw through legislation from the 2023 Reg. Sess. and Spec. Sess.); OHIO REV. CODE ANN. §
2907.02 (West, Westlaw through Files 1 to 56 of the 135th Gen. Assemb. (2023-2024) and 2023
Statewide Issues 1 and 2) (found unconstitutional in part by In re D.B., 950 N.E.2d 528 (Ohio 2011));
OR. REV. STAT. ANN. § 163.375 (West, Westlaw through the 2024 Reg. Sess. of the 82nd Legis.
Assemb., pending classification of undesignated material and text revis. by the Or. Reviser); 18 PA.
STAT. AND CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3121 (West, Westlaw through Act 95 of the 2024 Reg. Sess.) (validity of
subsection (e)(2) called into doubt by Graham v. Florida, 560 U.S. 48 (2010)); S.C. CODE ANN. § 16-3-
652 (West, Westlaw through 2024 Act No. 225, subject to final approval by the Legislative Council,
technical revisions by the Code Comm’r, and publication in the Off. Code of Laws); S.D. CODIFIED
LAWS § 22-22-2 (West, Westlaw through the 2024 Reg. Sess, Ex. Ord. 24-1, and Supreme Court Rule
24-11); TENN. CODE ANN. § 39-13-503 (West, Westlaw through the 2024 Reg. Sess. of the 113th Tenn.
Gen. Assemb.); TEX. PENAL CODE ANN. § 22.011 (West, Westlaw through the end of the 2023 Reg.
Sess., 2d, 3d, and 4th Called Sess. of the 88th Leg .); UTAH CODE ANN. § 76-5-402 (West, Westlaw
through the end of the 2024 Gen. Sess.); VT. STAT. ANN. tit. 13, § 3252 (West, Westlaw through Chs.
185 (end) and M-28 (end) of the Adj. Sess. of the 2023-2024 Vt. Gen. Assemb. (2024)); WASH. REV.
CODE ANN. § 9A.44.040 (West, Westlaw through all legis. from the 2024 Reg. Sess. of the Wash. Leg.);
W. VA. CODE ANN. § 61-8B-3 (West, Westlaw through legis. of the 2024 Reg. Sess. and 1st Extra.
Sess.); WIS. STAT. ANN. § 940.225 (West, Westlaw through 2023 Act 272, published Apr. 10, 2024);
2025] RAPE AND SEXUAL ASSAULT 861
